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Measuring Earthquakes

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The vibrations produced by earthquakes are detected, recorded, and measured by instruments call seismographs. The zig-zag line made by a seismograph, called a "seismogram," reflects the changing intensity of the vibrations by responding to the motion of the ground surface beneath the instrument. From the data expressed in seismograms, scientists can determine the time, the epicenter, the focal depth, and the type of faulting of an earthquake and can estimate how much energy was released. The first indication of an earthquake is often a sharp thud, signaling the arrival of compressional waves. This is followed by the shear waves and then the "ground roll" caused by the surface waves. A geologist who was at Valdez, Alaska, during the 1964 earthquake described this sequence:  The first tremors were hard enough to stop a moving person, and shock waves were immediately noticeable on the surface of the ground. These shock waves continued with a rather long frequen...
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Temperature gradient and density

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Temperature gradient and density It is well known from deep mining operations that temperature increases downwards at an average rate of 300C per km. This rate is higher near a source of heat such as an active volcanic centre, and is also affected by the thermal conductivity of the rocks at a particular locality. Assuming for the moment that the temperature gradient continues at the average rate, calculation shows that at a depth of some 30 km the temperature would be such that most known rocks would begin to melt. The high pressure prevailing at that depth and the ability of crustal rocks to conduct heat away to the surface of the Earth result in the rock material there remaining in a relatively solid condition; but there will be a depth at which it becomes essentially a viscous fluid and this defines the base of the lithosphere (Greek: Iithos = stone). The mean mass density of the Earth, which is found from its size and motion around the Sun, is 5.527 gem"3. This is grea...
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Transform Organic Matter into Petroleum

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                    Transform Organic Matter into Petroleum This article will explain the overall of how to transform organic matter into petroleum. Chemical processes will take place in order to transform organic matter preserved in source rocks into petroleum. This can be called a cooking process. Three phases regarding maturation of the organic matter to form petroleum are   digenesis ,   cytogenesis   and   mutagenesis . Diagenesis This occurs at shallow surfaces and begins during initial deposition. It normally takes place from a shallow depth to 1,000 m and the temperature range is less than 60 C (140 F). Non-biogenic reaction and biogenic decay aided by bacteria turns organic matter to Methane (CH4), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and Kerosene. Kerosene is a precursor to the creation of petroleum. Types of kerosene depend on the original type of organic matter. Kerosene Chemistry Chemical compo...
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